Nanotyrannus - Facts and Figures

Name: Nanotyrannus (Greek for tiny tyrant); pronounced NAH-no-tih-RAN-us Habitat: Woodlands of North America Historical Period: Late Cretaceous (70 million years ago) Size and Weight: About 17 feet long and half a ton Diet: Meat Distinguishing Characteristics: Small size; forward-facing eyes; sharp teeth About Nanotyrannus When the skull of Nanotyrannus (tiny tyrant) was discovered in 1942, it was identified as belonging to another dinosaur, Albertosaurus--but upon closer study, researchers (including the famous maverick Robert Bakker) speculated that it might have been left by an entirely new genus of tyrannosaur. Today, opinion is divided into two camps: some paleontologists believe Nanotyrannus indeed deserves its own genus, while others insist that its a juvenile of Tyrannosaurus Rex, or some other established tyrannosaur genus. Further complicating matters, its possible that Nanotyrannus wasnt a tyrannosaur at all, but a dromaeosaur (the class of small, carnivorous, bipedal dinosaurs better known to the general public as raptors). Usually, additional fossil specimens help to clarify matters, but no such luck with Nanotyrannus. In 2011, word leaked out about the discovery of a complete Nanotyrannus specimen, unearthed in close proximity to an unidentified ceratopsian (horned, frilled dinosaur). This has led to all kinds of fruitless speculation: did Nanotyrannus hunt in packs to bring down larger prey? Were its unusually long hands (rumored to be even longer than those of the full-grown T. Rex specimen Tyrannosaurus Sue) a unique adaptation to its ecosystem? The trouble is that this putative Nanotyrannus specimen, nicknamed Bloody Mary, remains in private hands, and has not been made available for expert analysis.

The World Of Color By B Dubois - 922 Words

The Scramble for Africa can easily be defined as the forced invasion and division of African countries among European superpowers. Those powers included Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany, and Belgium. Each superpower wanted control over a certain area on the continent and would do anything to ensure that their area remained in their best interest. To bring the conflicts to the forefront, the countries participated in the Berlin Africa Conference in 1884-1885. In this conference, the issues of Anglo-German relations and everybody’s control in Africa were discussed. As a result of the conference, European control began to overtake the African continent and imperialism became a giant part of the European mark. In his book, â€Å"Worlds of Color† W.E.B DuBois discusses the idea of whole colonial enterprise stating that the problem the world faces is the color line. This can easily be interpreted as Dr. DuBois giving the idea that if World, more speci fically European superpowers stop viewing the color line and Africa’s color line as something less than them a lot of the world’s issues could be detected and fixed. But more importantly, Dr. DuBois is stating that without the Worlds of Color, European industrialization would not exist. DuBois starts his analysis of Portugal by telling the story of his time at the Third Pan-African Congress. He shares his astonishment and excitement at the sight of a black man representing Portugal. Once congress formalitiesShow MoreRelatedHow The Veil And Double Consciousness Theory1590 Words   |  7 Pagesdoes the contributions of W.E.B Dubois fit into the world today? In order to dive into this topic we can follow the works of social theorist W.E.B. Dubois and the effect they may have on black athletes. Dubois introduced the world to sociological theories such as the veil and double consciousness. In this analysis, I will provide examples of how the Veil and Double Consciousness theories contribute to today’s society by observing professional black athletes. Dubois understood what it meant to be aRead MoreIdentity in Zora Neale Hurston’s How It Feels to Be Colored Me1408 Words   |  6 PagesZora Neale Hurston’s â€Å"How It Feels to Be Colored Me† can be interpreted as a reverse response of W. E. B. DuBois’ concept of â€Å"double consciousness† that he describes in â€Å"The Souls of Black Folk.† Hurston shows that not all African Americans experience a sense of double consciousness and that some are instilled with the self confidence required to embrace one’s â€Å"blackness.† First, it may be helpful to define consciousness before attempting to explain the notion of double consciousness. ConsciousnessRead More Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois Common Goal of Equality for African Americans1542 Words   |  7 PagesBooker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois Common Goal of Equality for African Americans The United States societal system during the 19th century was saturated with a legacy of discrimination based upon race. Cultivating a humanitarian approach, progressive intellectuals ushered in an era of societal reconstruction with the intention to establish primary equalities on the pervasive argument of human race. The experiment poised the United States for rebellion and lasting ramifications. The instantaneousRead MoreWilliam Dubois And African American Achievement Since The Paris World s Fair818 Words   |  4 PagesWilliam DuBois was one of this country s most important activist and educator. He was born in 1868 in a small village in Massachusetts. DuBois was attacked by racism in 19th century while attending Fisk University in Nashville. While completing his graduate studies at Harvard , W.E.B Duboi wrote an passage on the history of the slave trade. The slave trade is still considered one of the most talked about subject today. In 1895 W.E.B. Dubois was the first ever African American to earn a doctor degreeRead MoreAnalysis Of Up From Slavery By Booker T. Washington779 Words   |  4 Pagescontrol over the nation. For this reason, white people passed the Jim Crow laws to complicate African American lives by segregating them and giving them unequal opportunities to work, education, and etc. As a result, Booker T. Washington and W.E.B Dubois work on achieving equality and civil rights. On Up from Slavery, Booker T. Washington argues that â€Å"It is important and right that all privileges of the law be ours, but it is vastly more important that we be prepared for the exercise of these privilegesRead More Du Bois vs. Cox Essay1075 Words   |  5 Pagesthis concept of race develop into the immense issue we are facing now? According to Oliver C. Cox, the origin of race relations starts with ideas of ethnocentrism, intolerance, and racism. W. E. B. Du Bois said that if what want to find the truth out about race we need to look at the history of the world past the last centuries. The origin of race in my judgment as resulted from both history and the concepts mentioned in Cox’s opinion. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;He was an African American sociologistRead MoreThe Souls Of Black Folk By William E. B. Dubois1066 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"The Souls of Black Folk† was written in 1903 by William E. B. Dubois (4). Dubois was an activist for civil rights and an author of many pieces regarding the lifestyle, struggle and historic patterns of African Americans (4). Though Dubois was born after the abolition of slavery, he knew the prospects of the African American struggle were most likely formed due to the conditions of black lives during slavery. Dubois was also an educator and advocate for educational opportunities in black communitiesRead MoreEurope Is Nothing Without Africa Not The Other Way Around1104 Words   |  5 Pagesaggression, conciliatory pressure, invasions from the military, prospective journeys and colonization. Although African societies put up resistance the scramble for African soil was taken by the Europeans. W.E.B Dubois declares his concept of the color line providing the dark cynical view of the worlds relationship to black civilization and its potential following the Berlin conference. The Berlin Conference was called to regulate European colonization and trade in Africa during the Imperialism periodRead MoreThe New Land Of America Essay1619 Words   |  7 Pagespart of this revolutionary age. Led by Franà §ois Dominique Toussaint-L Ouverture, black rebels overthrew the colonial government, ended slavery in the colony, and in 1804 established the republic of Haiti, the first independent black republic in the world†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Harrold). The Movement was not widely popular in America until 1830’s. This is when the two thoughts on slavery started to cause tension. There were those that were for slavery and those that were against. These conflicting points of viewRead MoreCitizen : An American Lyric By Claudia Rankine1604 Words   |  7 Pages Citizen takes on a very distinct impression of separate identities competing in one person. W.E.B. Dubois seems to lay the foundation for the recurring experience described or seemingly described in Citizen when he says, â€Å"It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity. One ever feels his two-ness,—an American, a Negro; two souls

Essay on Federal Reserve Act - 1877 Words

The Federal Reserve: A Knight in Shining Armor quot;To suffer either the solicitation of merchants or the wishes of government, to determine the measure of the bank issues, is unquestionably to adopt a very false principle of conduct.quot; nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;-Henry Thornton, 1802 nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The banker was frantic. A large mob was gathering outside his bank and the people were clamoring for their money. The banker called the Federal Reserve Bank in Minneapolis and warned that unless this quot;mad runquot; were stopped, he would soon be out of currency. With the bank nearly two-hundred miles from†¦show more content†¦The credit system of the country had ceased to operate, and thousands of firms went into bankruptcy (Born...,.12). Something had to be done that would provide for a flexible amount of currency as well as provide cohesion between banks across the United States. (Hepburn, 399) This knight in shining armor, as described in the story of the bank run, was the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 helped to establish banks as a united force working for the people instead of independent agencies working against each other. By providing a flexible amount of currency, banks did not have to hoard their money in fear of a ban k run. Because of this, there was no competitive edge to see who could keep the most currency on hand and a more expansionary economy was possible. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The evolution of the Federal Reserve did not begin on December 23, 1913 with the passage of the Federal Reserve Act. Rather, it began with the Banking Panic of 1907, the most severe of the four national banking panics that had occurred in the precious thirty-four years. In response to this panic, a committee was established to find the flaws of the current banking system. This committee, the National Monetary Commission, found there were two main flaws dominating the system. First, the currency was not responsive to changes in demand. (Born...13). This meant that the bank had a fixed amount of currency, regardless of theShow MoreRelatedThe Federal Reserve Transparency Act1492 Words   |  6 PagesWhen discussing various issues affecting the federal government, transparency issues have to be put on the front line because the Federal Reserve’s should have one of the most transparent systems. The Federal Reserve transparency act was formulated in order to ensure that there is transparency in the federal reserves through making the federal government publicize most of the financial institutions that it offers loans to and the organizations which use the open market operations in order to purchaseRead MoreU.s. Federal Reserve Act1177 Words   |à ‚  5 Pagesvalue of currency throughout the years, the Federal Reserve changes either the inflation or the interest rates so that prices will be able to balance the debt amount. With actions like such, there are purposes sought by the Federal Reserve Act set toward â€Å"the Board of Governors and the Federal Open Market Committee†¦: to promote†¦ the goals of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates† (Federal Reserve). These are a matter of acts under the monetary policy. However, todayRead MoreFederal Reserve Act Overview Essays1229 Words   |  5 PagesFEDERAL RESERVE ACT OVERVIEW The Federal Reserve Act States that, The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and the Federal Open Market Committee shall maintain long run growth of the monetary and credit aggregates commensurate with the economy’s long run potential to increase production, so as to promote effectively the goals of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates. (Federal Government, 1977) After several years of financial turmoil and panics,Read MoreU.s. Federal Reserve Act Essay1393 Words   |  6 Pagesyour own knowledge account for the founding of the U.S. Federal Reserve and analyze how its role in economic policy has developed since then. In the late 1800s and early 1900s the United States experienced numerous banking panics ultimately leading to a massive crisis in 1907 which would motivate Congress to pass the Federal Reserve Act. President Woodrow Wilson would sign the act in December of 1913 (McBride Sergie, 2015). The Federal Reserve would mean a centralized banking system for the UnitedRead MoreThe Federal Reserve Act And The Central Bank Essay2203 Words   |  9 Pages142953.ONLINE 2ND 12WK The Federal Reserve System is often referred to as â€Å"the Fed.† It serves as the nation’s central bank and arguably plays the most crucial role in the U.S. economy. It is the most important regulatory agency in the U.S. monetary system and is usually considered the monetary authority. The Fed has several responsibilities and performs several functions. There are a few theories documented that challenge whether or not the Federal Reserve System exists the way it is definedRead MoreCentral Bank and Federal Reserve Act4670 Words   |  19 PagesCentral Banks and the Federal Reserve System 6.1 Multiple Choice Questions 1) Americans’ fear of centralized power and their distrust of moneyed interests explains why the U.S. did not have a central bank until the A) 17th century. B) 18th century. C) 19th century. D) 20th century. Answer: D 2) Bank panics in 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, 1884, 1893, and 1907 convinced many that A) the Federal Reserve needed greater control over the banking system. B) the Federal Reserve needed greater authorityRead MoreThe Federal Reserve Act, The U.s. Financial System964 Words   |  4 PagesPrior to the institution of the Federal Reserve Act, the U.S. financial system’s basic structure was determined by the National Banking Acts of 1863, 1864, and 1865 (Broz, 1999). The purpose of the legislation was to provide a uniform national currency and to raise revenue for the federal government during wartime (Broz, 1999). While effective in its main purposes, it was flawed in the fact that the increase of available currency had little to no effect on consumer demand which led to large seasonalRead MoreThe Federal Reserve Act Single Handedly Broke893 Words   |  4 PagesThe Federal Reserve This brings us to the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve is a private entity that is not connected or governed by the United States. It came into existence in 1913 by the Federal Reserve act. Many people believed are still believe it is a part of our government. Sadly, they are greatly mistaken. It originated from Jekyll Island are very wealthy people gathered to create it for their own selfish and personal gain from which only they controlled. The founding fathers stated clearlyRead MoreDiscussion of the Article The Influence of Economists on the Federal Reserve Act by Caporal562 Words   |  3 PagesDiscussing the Federal Reserve After reading the article, The Influence of Economists on the Federal Reserve Act, it is apparent the author is trying to suggest that the economists played a major role in the banking reform which led to the development of the Federal Reserve Act. During the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, issues regarding the framework for which the bank operates on was inconsistent and did not perform as projected in foreseeable emergency situations. For this reason, economistsRead MoreWoodrow Wilsons Acts Of Progressivisms1100 Words   |  5 PagesWilsons Acts to Progressivisms In the year of 1912, Democrat electoral candidate Woodrow Wilson was running in the Presidential Election against T.R. Roosevelt, W. Taft and E. Debs. After winning by a sland slide, and being nominated as the 28th President of the United State. President Wilson quickly went to work to save this nation from them, thus he created 2 antitrust laws and establishing the first federal bank. Thus, in 1912 Wilson started to reshape America The Federal Reserve Act of 1912

The Tragedy Of The Columbus - 815 Words

Our History has been riddled with violent occurrences that are often doctored to appear to be symbolic or significant rather than observed as the bloody atrocities they are. I’ve often wondered what sort of moral transformation have we had to go through to even get to where we are today; Which Unfortunately- Isn’t too far from where we were. Frankly we didn’t have such a great start considering the first man we praise for â€Å"Discovering† America was a violent man whom believed in white supremacy. That man is none other than good old Christopher Columbus. Columbus conducted his genocide way before 1866 so we will leave that maniac be for now, however; He was the first in a long line of white men that would devastate tribes of this land. We would continue to drive them from their lands for the territory, gold, and glory. We scorched their lands, destroyed the buffalo, The animal in which the plains Indians hunted and utilized for food as well as many other necessary uses. By 1893 The number of buffalo in the plains decreased from an approximated 300 Million to a measly 400 by 1893. While we continue to terrorize the indigenous people of this land our reign of terror only continues against people on the still coming into the land. The original pilgrims that made their way to the U.S they came seeking religious freedom and for the opportunity for a new start. The immigrants that began to pour into the country in the late 1800’s came for the very same opportunities only to beShow MoreRelatedEuropean Colonization Effects1222 Words   |  5 PagesColonization was almost a tragedy for some groups when it comes to violence, wars, diseases, and racism; for example, the Indians, Native Americans, and African Americans suffered the worst effects. Colonization started when Columbus discover America in 1492 thinking that he was going to India in search of gold and silver. As the book Of the People says, â€Å"Not understanding that he had found an unknown continent, he called the people they met ‘Indians.†(p. 15.) As Columbus discovered the Americas,Read MoreThe Church Of Columbus By Alice Lavern Riles1341 Words   |  6 PagesPastored in 1952 by Alice Lavern Riles, known as Mother Sheppard, The Church of Columbus remains today within the city of Columbus, Georgia. From a tiny building on 49th Street, to the over a million-dollar facility today, The Church of Columbus has gone through its share of change. Growing up, the church was called the First United Pentecostal Church, but once the church moved locations, Pastor renamed it The Church of Columbus. Located on 2001 Double Churches Road, there lies my second home, with itsRead MoreChristopher Columbus Persuasive Essay726 Words   |  3 Pagesmay be no hope for all. â€Å"In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue.† Of course, that is a trivial poem that we as students memorize while we are young, claiming the Christopher Columbus sailed across the sea, discovering America, and was forever engraved as an American hero and icon for his discovery. However, Columbus did not in fact discover America, for it was already native to American Indians and Indigenous Peoples. What many Americans do not know about Columbus is that he was a terrible human beingRead MoreEssay about 14921024 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿1492 In the year of 1492, the man who brought tragedy to the Americas was seen as a hero to us, but little did we know what he really did. Every elementary kid learned that Christopher Columbus found America in an honorable way. We also have a national holiday just for him. They never told us though how he was looking for the Indies and thought he was in China. In reality he was lost and had no clue he was in America. They also did not show us how he actually treated the people on the islands whenRead More Christopher Columbus Was a Murderer Essay examples1541 Words   |  7 PagesChristopher Columbus Was a Murderer The second Monday in October is celebrated across America as Columbus Day. It is a celebration of the man who discovered America. In school, children are taught that Christopher Columbus was a national hero. In actuality, the man was a murderer. It is true that he found a land that was unknown to the civilized world, yet in this discovery, he erased the natives inhabiting the land. With slavery, warfare, and inhumane acts, Christopher Columbus and the menRead MoreThe Legacy Of Columbus, Ohio1288 Words   |  6 PagesColumbus, Ohio is a well-known capital city often frequented by eager tourist or rival spectators who become entranced in the overwhelming atmosphere often associated with the Ohio State Buckeyes; the 2015 nationally undisputed college football champions. Also, Columbus is home to the other easily recognized sports teams, restaurants, and other points of interest, such as: the Columbus Blue Jackets, Franklin Park Conservatory, and Thurman’s Grill just to name a fe w. Naturally, Columbus, Ohio wouldRead MoreSummary : Columbus, The Indians, And Human Progress1389 Words   |  6 PagesDahuya Date: August 8, 2016 Period: 1 Chapter 1: Columbus, the Indians, and Human Progress 1. Important People In this section, you will list the important people that are presented in the chapter with a short description of that individual. (Approximately one sentence each) Arawak people- Natives of the Bahamas Islands that Christopher Columbus came upon; they are known for their hospitality and their belief in sharing. Christopher Columbus- A merchant s clerk from the Italian city of GenoaRead MoreChristopher Columbus : The Consequences Of The Columbian Exchange1307 Words   |  6 Pagescloser to the shoreline, blissfully unaware of the consequences of this moment as they watched the upcoming ship with fascination. What happened next was to be highly controversial for years to come. Whether you think that the actions Christopher Columbus took were justified or not, you cant deny it paved the way for European settlement in the new world, which shaped world history as we know it. The story of this monumental event was told in two separate passages which both convey different moodsRead MoreAn Unbroken Agony by Randal Robinson1142 Words   |  5 PagesIn An Unbroken Agony, author Randall Robinson chronicles the history of Haiti from tragedy to triumph. Robinson, a social activist , founder and former president of TransAfrica, an organization of African Americans, that is used to promote constructive U.S policies toward Africa and the Caribbean. Randall Robinson is a distinguished scholar in residence at Penn State Law and Penn State’s School of International Affairs. He is co-producer, creator, and host of the public television human rights seriesRead MoreChristopher Columbus s The New World1194 Words   |  5 PagesAs Christopher Columbus takes the Atlantic Ocean by sail, many scholars take him as to be the â€Å"First† European traveler to have set both feet on the ground of the Americas. As Columbus reaches land on October 12,1492, he first sets foot in the Bahamas, on an island he claims â€Å"San Salvador†. While on the island, Columbus successfully takes control of the land and its â€Å"habitant† people, with the support of the Spanish. When Columbus writes the letter to Luis de Santangel, the minister of finance for

“The Golden Kite, the Silver Wind” Summary and Analysis free essay sample

Working together can lead you to a better position than where you will get fighting. In the story the Golden Kite and Silver wind the two lands are continuously trying to best each other while not getting anywhere until finally coming up with a solution in the end. Allegory is shown throughout the story based on the Cold war, which is expressed by building walls which leads to the theme being that working together is better than having enemies. They never combated, but tried to surpass each other by increasing weaponry. The Mandarin of one of the towns, commands, â€Å"you raisers of walls must go bearing trowels and rocks and change the shape of our city!. The Mandarin like the U.S.A. or USSR, competes with the city of Kwan-si by ordering the workers to build a wall that resembles certain Chinese Spirits And you will change our walls into a club which may beat the pig and drive it off!. We will write a custom essay sample on â€Å"The Golden Kite, the Silver Wind†: Summary and Analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The stonemasons or the architects in a way symbolize the war factories that were used to manufacture nuclear weapons, or any destructive weapon for that matter in the cold war, the walls that the workers construct represent the nuclear weapons, as a sign of power and great triumphant. The Mandarins’ dispute caused more problems than they expected, comparable to Stalins and Truman’s role in the Cold War. Moreover, the reconciliation of the two Mandarin’s   toward the end of the of the story signify the authors perspective on the Cold War. The author writes, â€Å"the towns became the town of the golden kite and the town of the silver wind†¦and business trended again, and the flesh returned, and disease ran off like a frightened jackal.†, conveying   that the unity of two regions must exist in order for the environment to be harmonious or in balance. Because this story was written during the cold war, the text hints that the author felt   the war was vacuous, and that the U.S. and the USSR should stop their everlasting arms race.

Likely World Fifty Years from Now Political Aspects

Question: Write about the Likely World Fifty Years from Nowfor Political Aspects. Answer: Introduction Currently, there are a lot of revolutionary changes being experienced across the world regarding social, economic and political aspects. Therefore, this paper will focus on discussing and creating the impression of the kind of world that might exist fifty years from now based on class discussions and observed trends. The Kind of World that might Exist Fifty Years from Now The countries perceived to be powerful about military capabilities have been involved in unending war issues which have raised security concerns over the years across the world. For instance, the issue of nuclear and biological weapons has taken center stage on the entire matter of compromised safety in the world. Countries like North Korea and Syria have embarked on a journey to make nuclear and atomic bombs thus making them threats to the rest of the countries. Fifty years from now, more nations will have joined the countries already producing these dangerous weapons hence making the whole world unsafe for human existence. It is happening because of the failed efforts to control such activities. NATO members like the United States of America and Canada have tried to impose sanctions on countries such as North Korea and Syria among others. There will also be possible segregation of the world regarding economic, social and political abilities among nations (Adrian Done, 2011, 100). Since the World War I and World War II, the most developed countries have formed alliances and have always exercised the influence they perceive to have on other nations under various mandates. For instance, there exists the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), African Union (AU) and the European Union (EU) among others. NATO members agreed to mutual assistance in case of an attack on any of the members. On the other hand, EU members agreed to carry out viable economic activities amongst themselves. This trend is likely to cause divisions because nations based on their locations will pursue their interests first neglecting other regions (Donald et. al. 2012). The recently witnessed exit of Britain from the European Union provides an example of the direction the world is following. It was also witnessed during the downfall of European C ommunism after the pulling out of Soviet power from Eastern Europe that happened during the second half of the twentieth century. Some countries like the U.S. have banned migrants from a majority of Arab countries from entering the nation. Although the move was not welcome, it will castigate the efforts of unifying nations across the world and instead, cause chaos and divisions in future. However, the policy seems to strengthen the Arab Nationalism characterized by resistance to Western ideologies and creation of a social order based on the arduous exposition of Islam. Terrorism is also likely to overwhelm the world in future (). The U.S was attacked on September 11, 2011, making the administration to declare war on terrorism." In response, the U.S launched attacks on Afghanistan. However, Taliban strongholds and rebellion remain high to date. The preemptive strikes policy against potential enemies by the U.S led to a prolonged war in Iraq. Unfortunately, several other terrorist groups such as ISIS and Alshabaab have emerged and have launched offensive attacks in different nations across the world. It is feared that if more terrorist groups continue to form, the security aspect in the world will be sabotaged thus making the world a war zone. References Adrian, Done. 2011. Global Trends: Facing Up to a Changing World. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Donald, M Kagan, Turner Frank Ozment Steven. The Western Heritage: Volume 2, 11th Edition. Chapter 29: - The Cold War Era, Decolonization, and the Emergence of a New Europe Pearson, 20121018. VitalBook file. Bibliography Done, Adrian.Global Trends: Facing Up to a Changing World. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. Kagan, Donald M., Frank Turner, Steven Ozment. The Western Heritage: Volume 2, 11th Edition. Chapter 29: - The Cold War Era, Decolonization, and the Emergence of a New Europe Pearson, 20121018. VitalBook file.

Improving Healthcare Quality free essay sample

Improving Healthcare Quality Purpose The purpose of this paper is to identify aspects of quality improvement in healthcare. This research is conducted by examining and reviewing various literature regarding the definition and makeup of quality healthcare, need for improvements in healthcare, various quality measures or indicators and weighing the cost of improving healthcare quality. Defining Healthcare Quality Before any discussion can take place regarding improving healthcare quality, an examination of the definition of healthcare quality must be conducted. There are legitimately varying perceptions of what is consider to be the critical dimensions of quality healthcare. These views on quality largely results from the perspective one adopts as a patient, healthcare provider, health care manager, purchaser, payer, or public health official. The same health care experience may be assessed differently depending upon the person’s role. For example: ? The patient may view his or her experience with the health care system both by its outcome and personal feelings, such as whether the physician listened well, communicated clearly, and was compassionate as well as skilled in delivering healthcare services. ? A healthcare provider may view quality in a technical sense, such as whether an accurate diagnosis is made, whether a surgical procedure is performed proficiently and whether the patient’s health has improved. From this view, quality is the difference between what is technically sound and possible, and the actual practice and delivery of healthcare services. ? The health care manager, payer, or purchaser (employer health plan, or government program) may want to know if the healthcare services provided are cost effective. ? Public health officials may want to know if resources are being utilized appropriately to optimize population health and provided equitably within the population. Quality as defined in Clair G. Meisenheimer’s book, Improving Quality: A Guide to Effective Programs, is â€Å". . . the totality of features and characteristics of a health care process that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs; a process or outcome that consistently conforms to requirements, meets expectations, and maximizes value or utility for the customer. For the customer: getting what you were expecting and more; for the supplier: getting it right the first time, every time. The Institute of Medicine of the National Academies (IOM), a not-for-profit, non-governmental organization whose purpose is to provide national advice on issues relating to biomedical science, medicine, and health, and to serve as adviser to the nation to improve health, defines healthcare quality as the â€Å"degree to which health services for individuals and populations increase the likelihood of desired health outcomes and are consistent with current professional knowledge. à ¢â‚¬  (Retrieved July 11, 2009 from http://www. iom. edu). Further expounding the definitions provided, the IOM developed six dimensions of quality healthcare: 1. Timeliness – refers to the length of time it takes to provide care to patients. For example, how long it takes a patient to receive a treatment or follow-up care once a breast mass is detected. Delays should be shortened to increase the efficacy of treatments and to ease the patient’s fears. 2. Safety – refers to the ability or need to avoid injuries that result from the provided care that is intended to help the patient. Injuries such as those resulting from administering the wrong drug or wrong dosage, incorrect diagnoses, etc. 3. Effectiveness – the extent to which healthcare service is provided based on scientific knowledge to all who could benefit and refraining from providing services to those not likely to benefit, that is avoiding over-and underuse of resources. 4. Equity – the extent to which quality care is provided without regards to a patient’s gender, geographic location, gender and socioeconomic status. 5. Efficiency – the extent to which equipment, supplies and energy waste is avoided. 6. Patient-Centeredness – the extent to which the patient’s preferences, values and needs are taken into account when providing healthcare service. Care should be provided respectful of and responsive to the patient. Comparatively, in his book An Introduction to Quality Assurance in Health Care, Avedis Donabedian provides seven components of what he considers quality in health care. Three of these components are included in the IOMs dimension of quality healthcare; effectiveness, efficiency and equity. The remaining four are: 1. Efficacy – the extent to which healthcare technology and science are able to bring about health improvements when used under the most ideal circumstances. 2. Optimality – balancing the cost of healthcare improvements against the actual improvements, or in other words, by use of cost/benefit analysis ensuring that costs are not incurred which do not result in benefits do not exceed the cost or investment required. 3. Acceptability – the extent to which the expectations, desires and wishes of the patient and responsible members of their families are conformed to. There are five parts to the development of this definition: ? Accessibility – the ease with which patients can obtain healthcare ? The patient-provider relationship – the extent to which the healthcare provider exhibits towards the patient personal concern, good manners, honesty, truthfulness, attention to the preferences of the patients, making efforts to provide explanations, patience, empathy, respectfulness and the avoidance of condescension. ? Amenities of care – the desirable aspects of the circumstances and/or environment under which healthcare is provided and includes cleanliness, adequate parking, convenience, privacy, comfort, restfulness, availability of refreshments, good food, etc. Patient preferences regarding the risks, cost and effects of care – recognition that the patient’s value of the consequences of care may differ for that of the healthcare provider and from patient to patient. Healthcare providers should take the time to explain to the patient the expected cost, risk and effects of alternatives and be guided by the informed opinions of the patients or responsibl e family member. ? Patient’s definition of fair and equitable As initially mentioned there are various legitimate definitions of what constitutes healthcare quality. In developing this research paper, each of the definitions above will be utilized to address the issue of improving healthcare quality. The State of Quality Healthcare Surveys show growing concern over the eroding performance of the health care system. In November of 1999, the Institute of Medicine released a report entitled To Err Is Human: Building a Safer Health System, which concluded that 44,000 to 98,000 people die each year in hospitals due to preventable medical errors. In 2003 The National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA) released their first annual State of Healthcare Quality eport which found: More than 57,000 Americans die needlessly each year because they do not receive appropriate health care. The majority, almost 50,000 die because known conditions – high blood pressure or elevated cholesterol – are not adequately monitored and controlled. Others die or are at increased risk of death because they have not received the right preventative or follow-up care. [This is because] people with high blood pressure do not have it controlled, . . . people who have suffered a heart do not have their cholesterol levels monitored . . . and] smokers receive no advice to quit. Put simply, the healthcare system regularly fails to deliver care we know to be appropriate. (Nash Goldfarb (2006) p 7-8) Although quality improvements have been made in some areas since that first report, the NCQA’s 2007 report illustrated significant room for improvement. In the area of medication management and prescription, the report found inappropriate use of some treatment medications, specifically antibiotics. Americans suffer an estimated one billion upper respiratory infections or common colds annually. Colds are especially common among children, who suffer approximately three to eight colds a year. Because the common cold is most often viral, existing clinical guidelines do not prescribe the use of antibiotics as a treatment measure. Nevertheless, antibiotics are frequently prescribed to children with colds. Complications ranging from fevers and rashes to drug allergies, prolonged hospital stays and even death often arise from antibiotic treatment. Additionally, inappropriate antibiotic use contributes to bacterial resistance to antibiotics and represents wasted health care resources. Annually $227 million is spent for inappropriate treatment for the common cold. The impact upon the elderly is just as damaging. Despite medical consensus that certain medications increase the risk of adverse effects to the elderly and should generally be avoided, these medications are still often prescribed to the elderly. One in 20 prescriptions filled by the elderly are for drugs deemed as â€Å"always avoid†. More than 1 in 10 filled prescriptions are for drugs that would rarely be considered appropriate. Studies show that 21 to 37 percent of elderly patients had prescriptions filled for at least one potentially inappropriate drug and more than 15 percent had filled at least two. More than 40 percent of serious, life-threatening or fatal adverse drug events and 80 percent of adverse drug events in the elderly are avoidable. One study found that almost 3 percent of all elderly patients in a managed care organization suffered a preventable adverse drug event in a year. Reducing the number of inappropriate prescriptions can lead to improved patient safety and significant cost savings. Conservative estimates of extra costs due to potentially inappropriate medications in the elderly average $7. 2 billion a year. The 2007 State of Healthcare Quality report found in total between 38,300 and 88,900 avoidable deaths due to unexplained variations in care and avoidable hospital costs between $1. 9 and $3. 5 billion. Additionally, the report determined an estimated 51. 6 million avoidable sick days due to unexplained variation in care at a cost of lost productivity of approximately $8. 5 billion. These findings alone suggests and supports the employment of continuous improvement measures in the quality of healthcare. Quality Indicators â€Å"In health care as in other arenas, that which cannot be measured is difficult to improve. Providers, consumers, policy makers, and others seeking to improve the quality of health care need accessible, reliable indicators of quality that they can use to flag potential problems, follow trends over time, and identify disparities across regions, communities, and providers. (Guide to Prevention Quality Indicators: Hospital Admission for Ambulatory Care Sensitive Conditions, 2007, p 4) There are a number of measures that have been developed or defined by various organizations, measures that are utilized to determine, adjust and/or improve healthcare quality. One such organization has developed and implemented quality indicators (QI) to assist providers, policy makers, and researchers in the analysis of data to identify variations in the qualit y of either inpatient or outpatient care; the Department of Health and Human Services Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). The AHRQ’s aim is to improve the quality, safety, efficiency and effectiveness of healthcare and does so through researching: quality improvement and patient safety, outcomes and effectiveness of care, clinical practice and technology assessment, health care organization and delivery systems, primary care including preventive services, healthcare costs and sources of payment. The indicators defined by the AHRQ are used to measure various aspects of health care quality based upon hospital administrative data. The quality ndicators or QIs are grouped into four modules: ? Prevention Quality Indicators (PQI) – used to identify ambulatory care sensitive conditions (ACSC) which are â€Å"preventable hospitalizations† or conditions for which good outpatient care can potentially prevent the need for hospitalization, or for which early intervention can prevent complications or more severe disease. Despite these indicators being based upon hospital inpatient data, PQIs pro vide insight into the quality of healthcare outside the hospital setting. For example, a diabetic patient may be hospitalized for complications associated with diabetes if their condition is not sufficiently monitored, if they do not receive proper patient education or if they do not manage their condition. Even though other factors outside of the healthcare system may result in hospitalization such as patient failure to follow treatment recommendations, or poor environmental conditions, PQIs are a good beginning point for assessing the quality of healthcare within a community and â€Å"serve as a screening tool rather than as definitive measures of quality problems. They can provide initial information about potential problems in the community that may require further, more in-depth analysis. † (AHQR, (2007), p 2) Despite the strengths of these indicators, there are a few weaknesses that should be considered. First, differences in socioeconomic status have been shown to explain a large part of the variation in some PQI rates across areas. The intricacy of the relationship between socioeconomic status and PQI rates makes it difficult to delineate how much of the relationships are due to true difficulties in access to care in potentially underserved populations, or due to other characteristics, unrelated to quality of care, that vary by socioeconomic status. â€Å"For some of the indicators, patient preferences and hospital capabilities for inpatient or outpatient care might explain variations in hospitalizations. In addition, environmental conditions that are not under the direct control of the health care system can substantially influence some of the PQIs. For example, the COPD and asthma admission rates are likely to be higher in areas with poorer air quality. † (AHRQ, p 17). Second, the question of whether effective treatments in outpatient settings would reduce the overall incidence of hospitalizations has not been adequately addressed. The degree to which the reporting of admission rates for ACSC may result in changes in ambulatory practices and admission rates also is unknown. Patients may be admitted who do not clinically require inpatient care or patient may not be admitted who would benefit from inpatient care. Inpatient Quality Indicators (IQI) reflect quality of care inside hospitals including inpatient mortality for medical conditions and surgical procedures and comprises three types of measures: ? Volume Measures are indirect measures of quality based upon evidence suggesting that hospitals performing more of selected inpatient procedures may have better outcomes for those procedures. Volume indicators shows the numb er of admissions in which these procedures were performed. ? In-hospital mortality indicators measure death rates for selected common surgical procedures or medical conditions. Utilization indicators focus on the volume of selected procedures for which research has suggested issues of overuse, underuse, or misuse. The weakeness of these indicators is that they are based upon data which is collected for billing pruposes and not research or measuring quailty. Dispite the insight that may be offered from these indicators, they should not be used as a decisive source of information on the quality of health care. At least three limitations of administrative data warrant caution: ? Coding differences across hospitals. Some hospitals code more thoroughly than others, making â€Å"fair† comparisons across hospitals difficult. ? Ambiguity about when a condition occurs. Most administrative data cannot distinguish unambiguously whether a specific condition was present at admission or whether it occurred during the stay (i. e. , a possible complication). ? Limitations in ICD-9-CM coding. The codes themselves are often not specific enough to adequately characterize a patient’s condition, which makes it impossible to perfectly risk-adjust any administrative data set, thus fair comparisons across hospitals become difficult. In short, the AHRQ IQIs are a valuable tool that takes advantage of readily available data to flag potential quality-of-care problems. (AHRQ, 2007, p 18) ? Patient Safety Indicators (PSI) measures harm or adverse effects resulting from healthcare services. These indicators are defined on two levels; provider level indicators which measure preventable ill effects by patients who received care and the adverse effects within the same hospitalization, and area level indicators. Area level indicators measures all cases of preventable ill effects that occurred within a specific area. Pediatric Quality Indicators (PDI) like PSIs include provider level and area level indicators to identify potentially preventable complications but as they apply to pediatric patients, that is those under the age of 18 years. The measures and indicators developed by AHRQ are not exclusive nor do any of the indicators alone provide a complete quality assessment of healthcare systems. However, these QIs take adv antage of existing data and data collections systems in place in order to develop areas of improvement and some bases of comparison between healthcare organizations, standards, benchmarks, etc. Once areas of improvement have been identified by QI, the job of addressing those identified shortcomings may begin. Methods abound which addresses improving quality, such as Six Sigma, Total Quality Management, etc.. These may be employed within a healthcare setting with as much success as doing so in a manufacturing plant. Conclusion This paper sought to examine one side of the healthcare triad, quality. The other two being cost and access. However, by no means should one presume that quality or any of the three is more critical than the other. In fact, improving healthcare quality will effect the cost of healthcare, which in turn will effect access to that quality healthcare. Just as, effecting cost will impact quality and access. Admittedly, this paper fails to address in detail the intricate relationship between these three factors – but acknowledges the existence of this relationship. Improving quality requires a clear definition of â€Å"health care quality† . Ideally, this definition is based upon identifiable and measurable scientific indicators but without disregarding other indicators such as patient satisfaction. Once a definition has been formulated, indicators or measures may be developed and employed to identify areas of improvement and to then address those short falls in quality. References Beers, M. H. (1997). Explicit Criteria for Determining Potentially Inappropriate Medication use by the Elderly. Arch Intern Med 157:1531-1536. Curtis, LH, et al. (2004). Inappropriate Prescribing for Elderly Americans in a Large Outpatient Population. Arch Intern Med 164:1621-1625. Donabedian, A. (2003). An Introduction to Quality Assurance in Health Care. New York: Oxford University Press Department of Health and Human Services Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), (2007). AHRQ Quality Indicators. Fick, D M, et al. (2003). Updating the Beers Criteria for Potentially Inappropriate Medication use in Older Adults. Arch Intern Med 163:2716-2724. Gonzales R, Malone DC, Maselli JH, Sande MA. (2001). Excessive antibiotic use for acute respiratory infections in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 33(6):757-762. Gurwitz, J. H. , T. S. Field, L. R. Harrold, J. Rothschild, K. Debillis, A. C. Seger, C. Cadoret, L. S. Fish, L. Garber, M. Kelleher, D. W. Bates. (2003). Incidence and Preventability of Adverse Drug Events Among Older Persons in the Ambulatory Setting. JAMA 289(9):1107-1116. Johnson, J. A. and J. L. Bootman. (1995). Drug-Related Morbidity and Mortality: A Cost-of- Illness Model. Arch Intern Med 155:1949-56 MacKinnon NJ, et al. (2003). Indicators of Preventable Drug-related Morbidity in Older Adults: Use Within a Managed Care Organization. J Managed Care Pharm 9:134-41. McCaig L. F. , Besser R. E. , Hughes J. M. (2002). Trends in Antimicrobial Prescribing Rates for Children and Adolescents. JAMA 287(23):3096-3102. Meisenheimer, C. G. (1997). Improving Quality: A Guide to Effective Programs (2nd ed. ). Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers, Inc. Nash, D. B. Goldfarb, N. I. (Eds. ). (2006). The Quality Solution: The Stakeholder’s Guide to Improving Health Care. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers National Committee for Quality Assurance. The State of Health Care Quality: 2007. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, The Common Cold, December 2007, http://www3. iaid. nih. gov/topics/commonCold/overview. htm (July 14, 2008). Rosenstein N, Phillips WR, Gerber MA, Marcy SM, Schwartz B, Dowell SF. 1998. The Common ColdPrinciples of Judicious Use of Antimicrobial Agents. Pediatrics 101(1):181-184. Simon, SR, et al. (2005). Potentially Inappropriate Medication Use by Elderly Persons in U. S. Health Maintenance Organizations, 2000-2001. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 53( 2):227-232. Zhan, C, et al. (2001). Potentially Inappropriate Medication use in the Community-Dwelling Elderly. JAMA 286(22):2823-2868

Transesterification Fossil Oils into Biodiesel

Question: Discuss about the Transesterification for Fossil Oils into Biodiesel? Answer: Introduction Transesterification is the process to convert the fossil oils into Biodiesel. Biodiesel and fossil diesel are fall into same category of fuel. It is produced from straight vegetable oil, waste cooking oil , animal fats and tallow. Biodiesel transesterification represents the heart of any biodiesel manufacturing plant. It involves various complex set of chemical actions and heat transfer mechanism. There are several reactors which performs these operations. Each of the factors has their own advantages and disadvantages. In manufacturing unit the continuous transesterification is more preferable than batch processes. Because, the contineus processes give product quality, low capital and low operating costs per unit. The continuous stirred-tank reactors are the most popular continuous flow reactors in the manufacturing sectors. The primary objective of this report is to design and prototype a transesterification reactor to convert canola oil to biodiesel Furthermore, this report design a heat exchanger, storage tank and pump including the technical design as well as decision on the controls to use and instrumentation. Section 1 Process description: Once sodium hydroxide dissolved in methanol to make methoxideand react with canola oilthat pumped from the storage tank passes through heat exchanger into the reactor as the transesterification reaction occurs at condition 60and 4 bar. In the process of transesterification the reaction of lipid and alcohol forms esters and a byproduct namely glycerol. On the other hand the process displaces one alcohol from an ester. This process is called alcoholysis. This reaction is reversible and as a result of this an excess of alcohol forces the equilibrium in product side. The ratio of alcohol to lipid in the equilibrium is 3:1. However, this is increased to 6:1 to increase the product yield. The transesterification procedure has of three phases. The first step is the conversion of triglycerides to diglycerides, the next phase represents the transform of diglycerides into monoglycerides, and finally the last phase puts monoglycerides into glycerol. Each step yields one ester molecule from each glyceride. The reactions are reversible. The equilibrium helps to produce glycerol and fatty acid esters. Section 2 Storage Tank: The storage tank is used to store pure conola oil. The tank loads various discharged material by the transporters.Since moist increase spoilage risk tank must be protected from atmospheric moisture as moisture raises enzymatic and biological activity that leads to mold growth(Canada, 2003). The tank must be heated enough to prevent freezing. Flow diagram Construction material: Schweitzer, 1991recommends the carbon steel must be used in 25C and canona fluid must be added in the process. Because, the corrosion of these materials are less. PID Sizing: The size of the oil storage tank is determined using the above mentioned relations and is as represented in the table (E.1) Cost of the tank Section 3 Heat exchanger: The heat exchanger used in this section of biodiesel process will be selected here. In choosing the heat exchangers, various factors should be considered for each application. These factors include operating temperatures of the exchanger, fouling, pressure and pressure drop of the exchanger, utility stream characteristics, process stream and capital cost of the operation. These factors play important role in selecting the best heat exchanger. Table (6.18) represents the applicability of different heat exchangers [Van Den Berg , 2000]. Type Advantages Disadvantages Operating ranges Tube and Shell Flexible procedure, robust and easy to maintain Sometimes not economical for low pressure Tube-side 1400 bar Shell side 300 bar -270C to 1600C Air cooler Larger heat loads, Free utility ( air ) Economical for process fluid at low temperature 470 bar, process fluid up to 500c Double pipe High pressures possible , cheap construction, easy to maintain Poor heat transfer coefficient expensive for large duties Tube-side 1400 bar and 100-160 c Frame and Plate Lower areas needed, High effectiveness factor, compact Not appropriate for carbon stell, limited to below 30 bar 30 bar and -40 to 170c The above table shows that the tube and shell exchanger is the most suitable in this context. The next decision is to be taken after the selection of shell and tube heat exchangers is the necessary fluid required on tube side or on shell side. The table shown below represents few measures for the fluid allocation. Factors Solution Fouling When the fouling fluid on tube side, the fouling is reduced by higher available velocity Temperature On the tube side hottest liquid is placed on the tube construction more expensive material is placed Operating pressure The fluid with high-pressure is placed on tube side high pressure shell is more expensive than high pressure tube Pressure drop Fluid with lowest variation in temperature should be allocated to tube side where it gets highest heat transfer coefficient. Construction material Carbon steel PID Control of heat exchanger: The most equipment configuration of heat exchangers are shown above. The utility stream flow rate controls the product outlet stream temperature. So, by controlling utility flow rate the output temperature can be monitored. The above table shows how the free forward control is applied considering the flow to the exchanger at cascade outlet temperature Design Procedure : The amount of heat transfer across a surface is given by the below mentioned equation: Determining the surface area required for the specified duty with the available temperature difference is the primary importance of the design of the exchanger. The heat coefficient is measured by the equation as mentioned below: The dimensions of the reactor vessel are determined in regards of the above mentioned equation, and the results are shown the table below: Section 4 Pumps : Pumps can be classified into two categories. These are dynamic pumps and positive displacement pumps. The example of dynamic pump is centrifugal pump whereas, the example of positive displacement pump is reciprocating and diaphragm pumps. The major benefits of centrifugal pumps are as mentioned below (Peters and Timmerhaus, 1991): - The pumps are cheap and have simple constructional structure - The pumps are useful for liquid with large amount of solids à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨ - costs of Maintenance of these pumps are much lower than those of other pumps. Miscellaneous Pressure Losses: The turbulence is generated by obstruction in the flow. So, the process of pipe fitting drops the pressure of pipeline the process creates turbulence by bends, eklbows , reduction or enlargement of sections etc. Construction material Flow diagram Control of Pumps: The rate of flow of the pumped streams are regulated to get a specific amount of pressure of streams. This stream enters into the reactor and exists from the reactor in the process of pumping. The pumps are designed to be operated under constant speed. There are pumps of various variable speeds. But, these pumps are very expensive. Apart from this, the pump control system ranges from single hand-operated pumps to various highly advanced pumps like automatic flow control, pump speed control etc. The factors important for control system choice are pump type and drive type. Such as in centrifugal pump by changing either the speed or the valve setting the output can be controlled. PID Pump sizing Section 5 Reactor Design: A general reactor design procedure is outlined below: Collect the thermodynamic and kinetic data based on the side reactions and desired reaction. Collect the data of physical property which are required for the design Identify the predominant mechanism for rate controlling: Kinetic, mass or heat transfer. Make an initial selection of the conditions of reactor to give the desired yield and conversion. Estimate its performance after sizing the reactor. Select material suitable for construction create preliminary mechanical design for the reactor. Cost the proposed design, capital and operating. Transesterification Process: The final step of obtaining Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) by reacting with alcohol such as methanol and Ethanol with triglyceride molecules is knows as transesterification. For transesterification process , an alkaline catalyst NaOH ( sodium hydroxide) to elevate the reaction at STP and to produce FAME and glycerol after step by step conversion as shown below. [7] Figure 1: Transesterification Process Transesterification term represents the important class of organic reactions whereas, an ester of represent the transfer into another through interchange of the alkoxy moiety. The transesterification process is called alcoholysis when the original ester does chemical reaction with an alcohol,. Various industrial process use the Transesterification Process. This reaction happens by the mixture of reactants and it is an equilibrium reaction. The catalyst accelerates the reaction and increases the temperature. To obtain the high amount of esters the alcohol ahs to be used in excess amount. In the presence of alcohol and a catalyst with glycerol, the reaction transforms the transforming triglyceride into fatty acid alkyl esters. The stoichiometric ratio of the reaction is 6:1. The reaction is inherently endothermic. The overall reaction scheme can be shown below: Type of reactor: Three are batch reactors, semi continuous flow reactors and continuous flow reactors are three types of reactors are used in biodiesel production. The batch process is cost effective. It requires much less initial capital and investment in infrastructure. The process is flexible. Variations in feedstock type, composition and quantity are available in this process. Low productivity, more intensive labor, larger variation in product quality and energy requirements are major drawbacks of this process. The batch process and semi continuous process are similar in most of the aspects except in the one case. In this process the producer starts the reaction in lesser volume than the vessel can hold and then continues to add ingredients until it is full. Continuous-stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) will be used in this purpose. In CSTR, any materials is easy and free to enter and exit. The conditions do not change with time which will make our process conditions constant and not always changing which is easier to handle and control.The productsare removed continuously and the reactants are entered into the reactor continuously.The conditions of entering and exit streams are the same. CSTR are well mixed, the contents have uniform and equal properties such as the temperature, densityand pressure. The volume of CSTR are usually at constant volume. There are stirrers called agitators inside CSTR to mix well the reactants and catalyst. A CSTR can act as loop reactor when heated. The pressurized fluid is inserted into the system to facilitate the stirring or the agitators for higher heat and mass transfer rates. Design Methods of Chemical Engineering The Kinetics The Table 2.6 represents the set of transesterification reactions considering the simulation of the primary transesterification reactor. The In the Table 2.8 it is showing the values of rate constant and the equilibrium constant. The two factors limit the reactor temperature and controls it to not go beyond a certain limit. These are the instability of the evaporation and the increased rate of byproducts formation. Configuration of Reactor: For the transesterification reaction a jacketed continuously stirred tank reactor is appropriate. It is required to operate it continuously for 8150 hours per day. The reactor helps to operate the transesterification reactions and helps the suspension of finely suspended solids. This process creates suspension by agitation. As recommended by Bassel, (1990), the ratio between the height of the liquid and the diameter of the reactor is 2:1. The reactor must be 90% full. The heating efficiency of the reactors must be adjusted properly to attain reaction times and short heating. The care should in the whole operation as the jacket is joined with the heating tube across its length. Construction material: The constructional material consists of three portions. These are the vessel of the reactor, Jacket of the reactor and reactor agitator. The vessel of Reactor: The reactor vessel in the process of transesterification process must be kept under 60c temperature and moderate pressure. Schweitzer, 1991, and Hermann Ludewig, 1971 has recommended to use the stainless steel 316 for construction of this vessel Jacket of Reactor: According to Hermann Ludewig, 1971, the use of carbon steel must be used when the water heating is required. Reactor agitator : According to Hermann Ludewig, 1971, high-grade steel must be used as some corrosive reactant. Stainless steel 316 is best for this purpose. Size of the reactor: The mixing intensity represents the amount and proportion of mixing of alcohol and triglyceride (TG) in the reaction. The phases of the mixing are very important. In most of the cases the mechanical mixing procedure is followed to fasten the reaction process and increase the contact between the particles. This process increases the transfer arte of the mass. This procedure has its origin in the eighties. Thus the variation in mixing intensities in the reaction can change the kinetics of the transesterification reaction.The Rqynolds number helps to access the mixing intensity. In the fluid dynamics, the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces is represented by NRe (dimensionless number) in fluid dynamics. The following equation represents the NRe. Here n represents the rotational speed of the impeller, Da represents the impeller diameter, and and represent the fluid density and viscosity. Noureddini and his team investigated on the effect of Reynolds number on the transesterification reactions. The reactor is sized using the previous relations, and the Table (E.1) summarizes the results of the sizing of the reactor. Mixer design: The mixer design represents the type of mixer to be selected. The selection is done according to the guidelines specified of Ulrich, 1984. The measurements of the agitation system should be as specification provided in the guidelines by Geankopolis, 1993,pp. 144. Jacket selection The factors considered to select the type of jacket are as mentioned below: - The Cost à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨ - The heat transfer rate à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨ - The Pressure à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨ The table below represents various jacket types and their characteristics considering these above mentioned three factors, Coulson and Richardson, 1999. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨ Type Remarks Spirally and baffled jackets High heat transfer rate. Dimple jacket Used up to 20 bar. Simple and not baffled Lowest cost and used up to 10 bar. Half pipe jacket High heat transfer rate, and used for high pressures up to 70 bar. The jacket is sized by the some relations, and the results of jacket summarizes in Table (E.1) summarizes Vessel support design: The vessel support method requires to consider below mentioned factors: The shape, size of the vessel and weight of the vessel, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨ To design the temperature and pressure of the vessel.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨ Vessel location and arrangement à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨ The fittings of internal and external portion of the vessel and attachments.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨ The table shown below represents the various supports and their characteristics, Coulson and Richardson, 1999. Support types Remarks Skirt Appropriate for vertical columns Saddle Appropriate for horizontal vessels A skirt, in cylindrical shape, made of plain carbon steel is used to support the reactor and the highest dead weight load occurs when the vessel is full. Control of reactor: Because the process is continuing. The feed of the reactor needs to be constant within certain limits. The feed consists of two main components: oil and methanolxide. The methnoaloxide stream is kept constant and is measured by a flow control acting on a valve in the feed stream. A flow constant is attached and acts on the input of the amount of oil. The amount of the methanoxide and oil are now fed in the right amounts to get the desired ratio in the reactor. Also, the reaction is endothermic and quite an amount of heat is needed but the temperature must be continuously kept at 60c. the amount of heat needed is controlled by a temperature controller. The reactor controlled by a level controller which acts on a valve attached to the outgoing stream. This done to ensure the residence time in the reactor. Startup and shutdown Considering the above mentioned factors , the Transesterification reactor start-up needs to consider three things. These are as getting ambient temperature to steady operating temperature. Setting the process flow rates from zero to their steady state values and controlling the operation to reach the desired equilibrium state rate. Similarly the shutting down involves to stop the flow and to let the ambient temperature to cool down. But, sometimes stopping the reactant flow into the system, without controlling other important aspects, can lead to the explosion. So, the shut down process as well as the start up process requires detailed thought, planning and analysis. Cost of the reactor Section 6 Utilities: The biodiesel plant makes use of different utilities such us steam, water and electricity. Most of the steam is low pressure steam. Reason for selection and other options: The heating processes uses steam and the cooling is carried out by air and cooling water. All electricity is produced outside battery lirnits, no steam is used in the design to generate power. Further it isn't necessary to use a refrigerant to cool or condense any one of the streams. Major users The pieces of equipment using a lot of electricity are reactor, heat exchanger and pump. These three instruments together use almost 23% of the total electricity consumption of the plant. The major users of steam are heat exchangers and users of water is jacket of the reactor. Possibilities of future reduction: Heat integration is a part of the design which isn't applied. There are great opportunities to reduce the consumption of utilities by heat integration. Section 7: Hazard and Operability Analysis (HAZOP): The Hazard and Operability Analysis (HAZOP) identifies hazard and operability problems of the industry. It investigates the deviation of the operation of the plants from the intended design. The HAZOP result represents the inevitable problems occur in the course of production. The main aspect of HAZOP problem is to identify the problems and the firm should not dwell on the problems which are not apparent in the analysis. HAZOP is concerned about the safely of the operation and hazards represents the operational problems which degrades the performance of the plant. It also affects the product quality, production rate nad profit. Hence, the insights of individual engineers who work in the plant is very important to make the overall efficiency of the plant high. In the present discussion, the main trancesterification reaction was chosen as the subject of HAZOPs study. The reason for is the importance of the reaction in the Biodiesel plant. To measure the intensity and probability of hazardous operation a Hazard Matrix was created. To analyze the hazardous effects of unit operation few factors have been chosen. These factors are flows, pressure, and temperature of the reactor. These factors determine the possible deviation which could lead to definitive hazards the possible causes, consequences for each deviation has been identified and the researcher also provided the recommendation for each aspect. The matrix is shown below. Hazard Matrix Process: Transesterification Reaction STREAM PROCESS PARAMETERS DEVIATIONS POSSIBLE CAUSES CONSEQUENCES ACTION REQUIRED Feed (ST1) Reactant (ST2) Catalyst (ST3) Catalyst (ST4) Reactant (ST5) Flow High Low No Valve failure or fully open Valve failure or closed Failure of Flow Failure of Operator Failure of flow control Pipe breakage control sensor Plugged pipe Empty storage tank Possible upset in downstream Overflow Increased reaction rate Downstream process backed-up Pipe damage Reaction rate Reduced No reaction Pump cavitation Install HA Install LA check valve should be Installed Regular calibration and maintenance Train the operator Implementation of absorbing avoid leaks to ground Inspection must be done prior to startup Reactant (ST2) Catalyst (ST3) Catalyst (ST4) Reactant (ST5) Pressure Low Valve failure or fully open Failure of operator Leaked pipe Plugging in pipe Failure of Pumps partial MeOH vaporized Breakage of pipe Possible upset in downstream Damage of pipe differential pressure should be checked across valve routinely maintenance Fail-closed mechanism Inspection should be done prior to startup Feed (ST1) Reactant (ST2) Catalyst (ST3) Catalyst (ST4) Reactant (ST5) Temperature High Low High heating Failure of operator Control of temperature Failed temperature sensor Not sufficient heating Cooling occurs I Increased pressure CH3OH boil WCO boil Pipe melt Pump damage Reduced pressure WCO solidify upon cooling Viscosity increase Install HA + thermo couples Operator training Install throttle Install LA + thermo couples installed Regular maintenance PROCESS: TRANSESTERIFICATION REACTION